The Hidden History of Jewish Anti-Zionism
For the first sixty years of its existence—from the 1870s through the 1930s—Zionism was largely unpopular among most Jews. It only gained mainstream acceptance in the 1940s, following the Holocaust and the subsequent shift of American and Arab Jews from non-Zionist to Zionist positions. Over the next six decades, Zionism expanded dramatically, reshaping Jewish identity worldwide from religious practice to an allegiance centered on Israel. However, in recent years—particularly the past two—the global Jewish community has experienced a divide: while Zionism has solidified among Israeli Jews, support among American Jews has sharply declined. Today, support for Zionism among Jews outside Israel is collapsing faster than ever before. This is the story of the rise, decline, and resurgence of Jewish anti-Zionism.
Jewish Anti-Zionism Before 1948
In the United States and Western Europe
In the 1930s, American Jews numbered approximately 4-5 million, and most opposed Zionism from its inception until World War II. The Reform movement explicitly rejected Zionism early on, as reflected in the 1885 Pittsburgh Platform and a 1898 statement asserting “the mission of Judaism is spiritual, not political.” After WWI, 299 prominent American Jews signed an open letter opposing “the political segregation of the Jews and the re-establishment in Palestine of a distinctively Jewish State,” arguing it was incompatible with democracy, especially given the land's predominantly non-Jewish population. Morris Jastrow Jr., a notable Jewish American scholar, expressed in 1919 that Palestine's diverse nationalities called for a “Palestinian State,” not a Jewish one, emphasizing the community's widespread skepticism.
By the mid-1930s, Zionism attracted only a minority of US Jews. Major American Zionist organizations claimed just about 1.5% of the Jewish population as members, roughly 65,000 out of 4.4 million. Many Jews avoided Zionism fearing it would threaten their loyalty to the U.S. or reinforce antisemitic stereotypes of dual loyalty. Even Jewish intellectuals favoring cultural renewal, like Samuel Untermyer and Felix Warburg, shared this view. Conversely, some gravitated toward communism, criticizing Zionists as imperialists or nationalist opportunists, often viewing Zionism as a small, marginalized movement within the Jewish socialist left.
In Western Europe, similar attitudes prevailed before WWI. Most Jewish leaders and intellectuals sought integration into their host societies and viewed Zionism as a threat. Some even collaborated with antisemitic elements, echoing the sentiment that Jews did not belong in Europe. For instance, Edwin Samuel Montagu, a British Cabinet minister, opposed the 1917 Balfour Declaration, fearing it would undermine Jewish loyalty. British Jewish socialists in the 1930s criticized Zionism as “a tool of British imperialism,” accusing it of dispossessing Arabs and colonizing by conquest.
German Jews, numbering over 500,000, were overwhelmingly non-Zionist or anti-Zionist until 1937. Zionism was unpopular because many Zionists shared racial theories and mystical ideas about “national character,” aligning with fascist ideology and receiving Nazi support. Nonetheless, by the 1930s, some shifts occurred, with a more “mellow” form of non-Zionism emerging among Jews in the US, Germany, France, and the UK—though these communities were decimated by Nazi genocide by 1948.
Eastern European Jews
The anti-Zionist Bund, founded in 1897 in the Russian Empire, was the dominant Jewish political movement in Eastern Europe. It opposed Zionism, viewing it as a distraction from class struggle and a threat to Jewish workers. The Bund despised Zionists’ alliances with antisemitic regimes and regarded Zionism as a form of nationalism that betrayed the Jewish proletariat. During the 1920s and 1930s, support for Zionism among Polish Jews was modest—peaking at about 25-30% before WWII—but support for the Bund was much higher, with 55% voting for Jewish socialist parties in local elections.
Eastern European Jews suffered the Holocaust horrors firsthand, with Nazi annihilation decimating their communities by 1948.
Europe’s Orthodox Jews
Many Orthodox Jews, especially in Europe, remained largely hostile to Zionism. Religious authorities argued that divine redemption, not human effort, was the true messianic process. Theological objections included the secular nature of Zionism and its rejection of traditional Jewish law. Prominent rabbis, such as Samson Raphael Hirsch in Germany and the Rebbe of the Chabad Hasidic community, condemned Zionism as heretical or secular. Hasidic leaders, like Hayyim Elazar Shapira of Munkacz and others, viewed Zionism as abandoning faith in divine providence and divine governance.
The Orthodox establishment, led by groups like Agudath Yisrael, opposed Zionism until after Israel’s founding in 1948. Their opposition was rooted in both theological beliefs and fears of Zionist encroachment on religious authority, viewing the movement as a threat to traditional Jewish life.
Jewish Communities in the Middle East
In the Arab and Muslim-majority countries—Morocco, Iraq, Yemen, Iran, Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, and Syria—most Jews initially showed little interest in Zionism. Many viewed the idea of a Jewish state in predominantly Arab lands as potentially dangerous. For example, in Ottoman Palestine, while some elites supported Zionism, the majority of pious, traditional Jews opposed it, considering the land sacred and rejecting political sovereignty. They also saw Zionist immigration as a threat to their livelihoods and cultural traditions, especially as Zionist institutions sought to replace traditional community structures.
In Iraq, the Jewish community was well-integrated but hostile to Zionism; organizations like the anti-Zionist League were formed to oppose Zionist ambitions. Similarly, in North Africa, Jews largely remained indifferent or opposed to Zionism until after WWII, when violence and persecution drove many to emigrate to Israel.
In Ottoman lands, prominent rabbis like Haim Nahum opposed Zionism, fearing it would provoke Arab hostility. The broader Arab and Ottoman Jewish communities generally rejected Zionist nationalism, preferring cultural and religious renewal within their existing societies.
Post-WWII, many Jews from these regions migrated to Israel, often under duress or due to violence, further transforming the demographic landscape and political attitudes within Israeli society.
The Revival of Jewish Anti-Zionism
While many Jewish institutions outside Israel aligned with Zionism—often emphasizing Israel’s centrality—individual Jews increasingly questioned this narrative. The Holocaust’s horrors taught some that “never again” meant safeguarding all people from genocide, not just Jews. Hence, organizations like the American Council for Judaism (founded during WWII) promoted a vision of Jewish life rooted in shared humanity rather than nationalism. British groups, like the Jewish Fellowship, sought to focus on religious and ethical renewal rather than political Zionism.
After Israel’s establishment, anti-Zionism persisted at the margins. Movements like the Canaanite movement in Israel and Matzpen emerged, advocating for equal rights regardless of religion or ethnicity, and calling for de-Zionization. Some Israeli Jews, including critics like Israel Shahak, condemned the racist and colonial aspects of Zionism, warning of parallels with Nazism.
Initially, many Jewish communities and leaders maintained distance from Israel’s policies, with some American Jewish organizations objecting to symbols of Israeli nationalism—such as the flag—on ideological grounds. Prominent critics, including Alfred Lilienthal and others, challenged Zionist narratives and advocated for equal rights and recognition of Palestinian rights, often inspired by civil rights and anti-war movements.
In recent decades, a new wave of Jewish anti-Zionists has emerged globally. Groups like Jewish Voice for Peace (JVP), founded in the 1990s and declaring openly against Zionism by 2015, have grown rapidly, becoming influential voices. Polls reveal rising skepticism among American Jews: support for Zionism is waning, with many younger Jews viewing Israel critically or questioning Zionist ideology altogether.
The current landscape features a vibrant, growing movement of Jewish voices—on social media, podcasts, arts, and activism—that challenge Zionism’s narratives and promote solidarity with Palestinians. This movement reflects a broader recognition that Zionism’s foundational logic—of settler-colonial elimination—has led to ongoing violence and injustice.
The Future of Jewish Anti-Zionism
The recent Israeli military actions in Gaza have starkly exposed the genocidal nature of Zionist policies, echoing settler-colonial patterns described by scholars like Patrick Wolfe. These developments have energized many Jews worldwide to question Zionism anew, fostering a resurgence of anti-Zionist thought and activism. As more young Jews reject Zionism’s chauvinism and embrace universal principles of equality and justice, it seems likely that opposition to Zionism will continue to grow, reshaping Jewish identity and politics well into the future.